Modulation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 Replication by Interferon Regulatory Factors

Transcription of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 is controlled by the cooperation of virally encoded and host regulatory proteins. The Tat protein is essential for viral replication, however, expression of Tat after virus entry requires HIV-1 promoter activation. A sequence in the 5′ HIV-1 LTR, containing a binding site for transcription factors of the interferon regulatory factors (IRF) family has been suggested to be critical for HIV-1 transcription and replication. Here we show that IRF-1 activates HIV-1 LTR transcription in a dose-dependent fashion and in the absence of Tat. This has biological significance since IRF-1 is produced early upon virus entry, both in cell lines and in primary CD4⁺ T cells, and before expression of Tat. IRF-1 also cooperates with Tat in amplifying virus gene transcription and replication. This cooperation depends upon a physical interaction that is blocked by overexpression of IRF-8, the natural repressor of IRF-1, and, in turn is released by overexpression of IRF-1. These data suggest a key role of IRF-1 in the early phase of viral replication and/or during viral reactivation from latency, when viral transactivators are absent or present at very low levels, and suggest that the interplay between IRF-1 and IRF-8 may play a key role in virus latency.