Uninfected CD4 ⁺ T cells proliferate to a greater extent than infected CD4 ⁺ T cells following anti-CD3/anti-CD28 stimulation. (A) Fold increase in total CD4⁺ T cells in individual culture wells from each study participant as measured by ddPCR analysis of the RPP30 gene. Black dots within each violin plot represent median values. (B) Average fold increase in uninfected CD4⁺ T cells or CD4⁺ T cells with the indicated type of provirus in individual culture wells following anti-CD3/CD28 stimulation. This is a pooled analysis from all 10 donors. (C–L) Fold change in CD4⁺ T cells stratified by HIV-1 provirus type for each study participant. Participant ID is displayed at the top of each panel. In this analysis, wells were not excluded if more than one provirus type was detected because the IPDA allows separate quantitation of the proliferation of each provirus type. Pairwise comparisons were performed with a Wilcoxon test. * P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001, ns = not significant (P > 0.05).