Table 2. Key preclinical studies... | Rockefeller University Press

Table 2.

Key preclinical studies demonstrating dependence on cDC1 for successful immunotherapy

Immunotherapy approach	Genetic model utilized	Tumor model utilized	Key findings	Reference
ICB
αCXCR4 + αPD-1 IgG combination	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	Orthotopic (HCA-1) and autochthonous HCC models	cDC1 prevalence and proximity to CD8⁺ T cells increased following combination therapy. Combination therapy effectiveness was compromised in KO mice	Morita et al. (2025)
αPD-L1 IgG	Chimeric mice: BM from CD11c-DTR-eGFP mice mixed with WT or Batf3^−/− mice	B16-SIY and MC8-SIY SC models	Presence of cDC1s in the TME expressing the costimulatory molecule 4-1BBL required for optimal response to anti-PD-1 blockade	Ziblat et al. (2024)
αPD-1 + α4-1BB IgG combination	C57BL/6 XCR1^DTRVenus B6.129S(C)-Batf3^tm1Kmm/J	MC38 SC model	cDC1 depletion impaired therapeutic efficacy associated with reduced intratumoral T cell infiltration	Teijeira et al. (2022)
αPD-1 + αCTLA4 IgG alone and in combination	C57BL/6 Xcr1^DTRVenus	E0771 SC model	cDC1 depletion impaired therapeutic efficacy	Teijeira et al. (2022)
αCTLA4 IgG	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6 Xcr1^DTRVenus	Orthotopic MOSC1 tongue tumor model	αCTLA4-targeted therapy resulted in increase of cDC1s in tdLN. Therapeutic response was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice Early depletion of cDC1s relative to treatment impairs response, while later depletion had less impairment on therapeutic efficacy	Saddawi-Konefka et al. (2022)
αPD-1 IgG + CCL7 combination	N/A	Autochthonous Kras^{LSL−G12D/+Tp53fl/fl} (KP) and the Kras^LSL−G12D/+Lkb1^fl/fl (KL) NSCLC mouse models	Combined treatment prolonged survival of mice compared with untreated and PD-1 treatment alone. Therapeutic efficacy was associated with increased infiltration of cDC1s and CD8⁺ T cells	Zhang et al. (2020)
αPD-L1 IgG	CD11c-Cre; Pdl1^{^fl/f} and Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	MC38 and EG.7 SC models	PD-L1 expression on DCs essential for response to αPD-L1–targeted therapy. Efficacy of αPD-L1–targeted therapy was diminished in Batf3^−/−mice. cDC1s upregulate PD-L1 upon antigen uptake driven by IFNγ signaling	Peng et al. (2020)
-	Clec9a-Cre Cd274^fl/fl C57BL/6N mice (not cDC1 specific—all mature DCs)	PD-L1–deficient and PD-L1–sufficient MC38, and HEPA1-6.X1.1 SC models	Deletion of PD-L1 expression on DCs, and not macrophages, leads to restriction of tumor growth and enhanced antitumor T cell responses. DCs identified as key mediators of PD-1:PD-L1 axis	Oh et al. (2020)
αPD-1 + α4-1BB IgG	Batf3^−/− BALB/C	Orthotopic 4T1.2 mammary carcinoma model	Adjuvant or neoadjuvant immunotherapy efficacy was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice associated with reduced CD8⁺ T cell priming	Liu et al. (2019)
αPD-1 IgG	Zbtb46-Dtr chimera models	MC38 SC model	Efficacy of αPD-1–targeted therapy was impaired when DCs were depleted or when IL-12 was neutralized. Authors demonstrate a role for IL-12⁺ cDC1s for optimal therapeutic response	Garris et al. (2018)
αPD-L1 IgG	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	B16 SC models	Efficacy of αPD-L1–targeted therapy was diminished in Batf3^−/−mice. CD103⁺ DCs were required to induce treatment-induced antitumor immunity. Therapeutic synergy was observed between systemic FLT3L, αPD-L1 IgG, and intratumoral poly I:C treatment	Salmon et al. (2016)
αPD-1 + α4-1BB IgG alone and in combination α4-1BB IgG + IL-12 αPD-1 or α4-1BB IgG in combination with FLT3L and poly-ICLC	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	MC38, MC38-OVA, and B16-OVA SC models	Efficacy of each immunotherapeutic approach trialed was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice associated with the absence of CD8⁺ T cell priming	Sánchez-Paulete et al. (2016)
Costimulatory agonist therapy
Systemic α4-1BB IgG in combination with intratumoral HMGN1 (TLR4 agonist) and 3M-052 (TLR7/8 agonist) ISV	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	MC38 SC models	Combination therapy efficacy was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice associated with lower secretion of IFNγ by T cells in treated mice	Wang et al. (2025)
αCD40 IgG + systemic recombinant FLT3L protein	C57BL/6 Xcr1^DTRVenus	Orthotopic KP2 OVA–expressing models	Intratumoral expansion of total CD8⁺ T cells, IFNγ⁺ CD8⁺ T cells, and therapeutic benefit following treatment was diminished in the absence of cDC1s. Additionally, cDC1 numbers in TME following treatment may be sustained via IFNγ signaling	Hogg et al. (2025)
αCD40 IgG + systemic recombinant FLT3L protein	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	WT- and Mlh1-deficient KP NSCLC SC models	Therapeutic strategy to boost DC prevalence and activation via FLT3L and αCD40 IgG delivery exhibits diminished efficacy in cDC1-deficient mice, associated with diminished CD8⁺ T cell infiltration into tumor	López et al. (2024)
Bispecific antibodies targeting CD40 and DC/cDC1 cell surface markers	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J Xcr1-iDTR	MC38 SC, B16-OVA SC, and MCA-205 SC models	cDC1s are responsible for therapeutic efficacy of therapy but are not implicated in toxicity αCD40-targeted treatment does not induce tumor-specific CD8⁺ T cells, or therapeutic efficacy in Batf3^−/− mice	Salomon et al. (2022)
N/A	Xcr1^Cre/+Cd40^fl/fl (cDC1-specific CD40 deletion)	1956-mOVA fibrosarcoma SC model	Loss of CD40 signaling in cDC1 diminishes (1) endogenous antitumor CD8⁺ T cell responses due to lack of cDC1 licensing, (2) early CD4⁺ T cell activation	Ferris et al. (2020)
αCD40 IgG + αPD-1/CTLA4 IgG	B6.129S(C)-Batf3^tm1Kmm/J	PDA SC model	Therapeutic efficacy was ablated in Batf3^−/− mice	Morrison et al. (2020)
αCD40 IgG + gemcitabine/Nab-paclitaxel chemotherapy	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	PDA SC model	Therapeutic efficacy was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice	Byrne and Vonderheide (2016)
Oncolytic virus therapy
Oral reovirus therapy	B6.129S(C)-Batf3^tm1Kmm/J	CT26 SC models	Demonstrates the efficacy of oral delivery of oncolytic virus for, with effects dependent on cDC1s, type I IFN signaling and CD8⁺ T cells. Oral delivery was not therapeutically effective in cDC1-deficient mice	Lee et al. (2024b)
Intratumoral recombinant FLT3L and oncolytic NDV delivery	Batf3^−/− BALB/C	A20 SC models	Therapeutic synergy observed between intratumoral recombinant FLT3L delivery and intratumoral NDV delivery. Synergistic effects absent in cDC1-deficient mice Lack of therapeutic efficacy in cDC1-deficient mice associated with lack of induction of tumor-specific T cells	Svensson-Arvelund et al. (2022)
Intratumoral delivery of heat-inactivated or live oncolytic vaccinia virus engineered to express GM-CSF	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	B16 ID models	cDC1s required for antitumor effects of both live and inactivated oncolytic virus delivery	Wang et al. (2021)
Intratumoral delivery of inactivated modified vaccine virus Ankara	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	B16 ID models	Therapeutic efficacy was dependent on cDC1s and additionally STING signaling in host. cDC1s required for induction of tumor-specific CD8⁺ T cell responses following therapy	Dai et al. (2017)
ACT
ACT cells expressing XCL1, FLT3L, or combination of both (ACT-FX)	Batf3^−/−C57BL/6N	B16-OVA and MC-38 OVA SC models	cDC1s required for efficacy of WT ACT or XCL1-expressing ACT. Additionally, ACT-FX were most effective at controlling tumor growth associated with enhanced DC:T cell interactions in the TME	Xiao et al. (2025)
ACT of OT-I cells	XCR1-DTR-Venus C57BL/6J	B16-OVA and MC-38 SC models	cDC1 depletion impaired the efficacy of ACT utilizing OT-I cells associated with decreased intratumoral infiltration, decreased stemness, and increased expression of exhaustion markers	Teijeira et al. (2022)
ACT of TYRP1-targeted CAR-T cells alone or in therapeutic combination with STING agonism	Batf3^−/−	B16 SC models	cDC1 depletion impaired the efficacy of CAR-T therapy ± STING agonism associated with a loss of epitope spreading and associated expansion of tumor-directed endogenous CD8⁺ T cell responses	Conde et al. (2021)
ACT of CAR-T cells expressing FLT3L in combination with poly I:C treatment	N/A	E0771-OVA-Her2 & MC38-Her2 SC models	CAR-T cells engineered to express FLT3L, given alongside poly I:C and α4-1BB IgG, promoted more effective tumor control, associated with expansion of cDC1, cDC2 populations in the TME and induction of epitope spreading in treated mice	Lai et al. (2020)
ACT of CD40L-overexpressing CAR-T cells	Batf3^−/− BALB/C	Systemic A20 lymphoma model	Therapeutic efficacy diminished in Batf3^−/− mice. Differentiation and expansion of cDC1s in the TME noted in response to ACT	Kuhn et al. (2020)
ACT of Pmel-1 CD8⁺ T cells alone and in combination with hgp100 peptide vaccination	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	B16 SC model	Expansion of transferred cells was absent in Batf3^−/− mice. Utilizing bone chimera models, authors confirm role for CD40 and CD70 signaling in host BATF3-reliant cells for ACT expansion and efficacy	Oba et al. (2020)
ACT of CD8⁺ T cells isolated from matched 2C donor mice and subsequently activated ex vivo	CD11c-DTR/Batf3^−/−	Autochthonous BP, BP-SIY, BPC-SIY melanoma models	CD103⁺ BATF3-dependent cells in the TME produce CXCL9/10 that promote intratumoral infiltration of transferred cells	Spranger et al. (2017)
ACT of OT-I cells	XCR1-DTR:Ccr7^−/− mixed BM chimeras	B78ChOVA SC model	CCR7-dependent migration of CD103⁺ DCs is required in the dLN to effectively prime previously transferred antitumor T cells	Roberts et al. (2016)
ACT of OT-I cells	FTY720-treated zDC-DTR mice	EG7.1 SC model	CD103⁺ DCs in tumor are required for antitumor effect of ACT	Broz et al. (2014)
cDC1-based vaccination
Intratumoral vaccination with peptide-loaded/activated CD34⁺ HSC-derived human cDC1s in combination with systemic anti–PD-1 IgG	N/A	SC humanized A375 melanoma model	Establishes the therapeutic feasibility and efficacy of a scalable, serum-free platform for generation of bona fide cDC1 from CD34⁺ progenitors. Intratumoral delivery of activated, antigen-loaded cDC1s combined with anti-PD-1 treatment reduced tumor growth in a humanized melanoma model	Balan et al. (2025)
Vaccination with splenic cDC1 or cDC2 loaded with tumor cell lysate via UV-irradiated tumor cells and stimulated with CpG ex vivo	N/A	SC B16-OVA and MC38	cDC1 vaccination more effective than cDC2 based in delaying tumor growth/prolonging survival and induction of Th1 and CD8⁺ T cell effector and memory responses	Heras-Murillo et al. (2025)
Intratumoral cDC1 vaccination in combination with αPD-1 IgG. XCR1⁺ cDC1s isolated from the spleen of mice harboring B16-FLT3L tumors were utilized. cDC1s were treated with poly I:C and tumor antigen peptides prior to delivery	N/A	Orthotopic MOC1esc1 (HNSCC model)	Intratumoral cDC1 vaccination restored αPD-1 responsiveness associated with expansion of tumor antigen–specific response and intratumoral infiltration	Saito et al. (2024)
Antigen agonistic approach involving intratumoral vaccination with cDC1, cDC2, or GM-CSF/IL-4–cultured DCs	N/A	1956 mOVA SC model	cDC1-based vaccination outperformed cDC2 or GM-CSF/IL-4 DCs in terms of tumor control and induction of tumor-specific CD8⁺ T cell responses. Vaccination was only effective via intratumoral and not intravenous route. cDC1-based vaccination was not reliant on the presence of host cDC1s	Ferris et al. (2022)
Intratumoral delivery of autologous CD141⁺ combined with αPD-1 IgG in humanized mouse model	N/A	Humanized mouse model—LM-MEL28 human melanoma cell line	Vaccination of humanized mouse autologous CD141⁺ DCs (previously activated with poly I:C) synergizes with αPD-1 therapy	Lee et al. (2021)
Vaccination with in vitro generated, tumor antigen–loaded, and poly I:C-activated CD103⁺ DCs alone and in combination with αPD-1 or αCTLA4 IgG	N/A	B16 and K7M3 (osteosarcoma) SC and metastatic models	CD103⁺ DC-based vaccination outperformed moDC-based vaccination in delaying tumor growth and inducing tumor-specific T cell responses. CD103⁺ cDC1 vaccination exhibited therapeutic synergy with ICB approaches	Zhou et al. (2020)
Vaccination with splenic cDC1 loaded with tumor cell lysate via UV-irradiated tumor cells and stimulated with poly I:C ex vivo	N/A	B16, B16-OVA, and MC38 SC models	First study to demonstrate the efficacy of cDC1-based cancer vaccination. Vaccination with dead tumor cell–loaded cDC1s promoted therapeutic efficacy alone and synergized with PD-1–directed ICB	Wculek et al. (2019)
Vaccination with DCs isolated from LLC-OVA tumors: cDC2 (MHC class II⁺ CD11c⁺ CD64⁻ CD24⁻ CD11b⁺ Ly6C^lo), cDC1 (MHC class II^+, CD11c⁺ CD64⁻ CD24⁺ CD11b^lo)	N/A	B16-OVA, LLC-OVA SC models	cDC1-based vaccination promoted strong induction of antitumor cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cells cDC1-based vaccination outperformed cDC2-based approaches in the B16-OVA tumor model cDC2-based vaccination outperformed cDC1-based approaches in the LLC-OVA tumor model, with authors hypothesizing role of MDSCs and TAMs in TME mediating lack of cDC1 efficacy	Laoui et al. (2016)

Immunotherapy approach	Genetic model utilized	Tumor model utilized	Key findings	Reference
ICB
αCXCR4 + αPD-1 IgG combination	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	Orthotopic (HCA-1) and autochthonous HCC models	cDC1 prevalence and proximity to CD8⁺ T cells increased following combination therapy. Combination therapy effectiveness was compromised in KO mice	Morita et al. (2025)
αPD-L1 IgG	Chimeric mice: BM from CD11c-DTR-eGFP mice mixed with WT or Batf3^−/− mice	B16-SIY and MC8-SIY SC models	Presence of cDC1s in the TME expressing the costimulatory molecule 4-1BBL required for optimal response to anti-PD-1 blockade	Ziblat et al. (2024)
αPD-1 + α4-1BB IgG combination	C57BL/6 XCR1^DTRVenusB6.129S(C)-Batf3^tm1Kmm/J	MC38 SC model	cDC1 depletion impaired therapeutic efficacy associated with reduced intratumoral T cell infiltration	Teijeira et al. (2022)
αPD-1 + αCTLA4 IgG alone and in combination	C57BL/6 Xcr1^DTRVenus	E0771 SC model	cDC1 depletion impaired therapeutic efficacy	Teijeira et al. (2022)
αCTLA4 IgG	Batf3^−/−C57BL/6 Xcr1^DTRVenus	Orthotopic MOSC1 tongue tumor model	αCTLA4-targeted therapy resulted in increase of cDC1s in tdLN. Therapeutic response was diminished in Batf3^−/− miceEarly depletion of cDC1s relative to treatment impairs response, while later depletion had less impairment on therapeutic efficacy	Saddawi-Konefka et al. (2022)
αPD-1 IgG + CCL7 combination	N/A	Autochthonous Kras^{LSL−G12D/+Tp53fl/fl} (KP) and the Kras^LSL−G12D/+Lkb1^fl/fl (KL) NSCLC mouse models	Combined treatment prolonged survival of mice compared with untreated and PD-1 treatment alone. Therapeutic efficacy was associated with increased infiltration of cDC1s and CD8⁺ T cells	Zhang et al. (2020)
αPD-L1 IgG	CD11c-Cre; Pdl1^{^fl/f} and Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	MC38 and EG.7 SC models	PD-L1 expression on DCs essential for response to αPD-L1–targeted therapy. Efficacy of αPD-L1–targeted therapy was diminished in Batf3^−/−mice. cDC1s upregulate PD-L1 upon antigen uptake driven by IFNγ signaling	Peng et al. (2020)
-	Clec9a-Cre Cd274^fl/flC57BL/6N mice (not cDC1 specific—all mature DCs)	PD-L1–deficient and PD-L1–sufficient MC38, and HEPA1-6.X1.1 SC models	Deletion of PD-L1 expression on DCs, and not macrophages, leads to restriction of tumor growth and enhanced antitumor T cell responses.DCs identified as key mediators of PD-1:PD-L1 axis	Oh et al. (2020)
αPD-1 + α4-1BB IgG	Batf3^−/− BALB/C	Orthotopic 4T1.2 mammary carcinoma model	Adjuvant or neoadjuvant immunotherapy efficacy was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice associated with reduced CD8⁺ T cell priming	Liu et al. (2019)
αPD-1 IgG	Zbtb46-Dtr chimera models	MC38 SC model	Efficacy of αPD-1–targeted therapy was impaired when DCs were depleted or when IL-12 was neutralized. Authors demonstrate a role for IL-12⁺ cDC1s for optimal therapeutic response	Garris et al. (2018)
αPD-L1 IgG	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	B16 SC models	Efficacy of αPD-L1–targeted therapy was diminished in Batf3^−/−mice. CD103⁺ DCs were required to induce treatment-induced antitumor immunity. Therapeutic synergy was observed between systemic FLT3L, αPD-L1 IgG, and intratumoral poly I:C treatment	Salmon et al. (2016)
αPD-1 + α4-1BB IgG alone and in combinationα4-1BB IgG + IL-12αPD-1 or α4-1BB IgG in combination with FLT3L and poly-ICLC	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	MC38, MC38-OVA, and B16-OVA SC models	Efficacy of each immunotherapeutic approach trialed was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice associated with the absence of CD8⁺ T cell priming	Sánchez-Paulete et al. (2016)
Costimulatory agonist therapy
Systemic α4-1BB IgG in combination with intratumoral HMGN1 (TLR4 agonist) and 3M-052 (TLR7/8 agonist) ISV	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	MC38 SC models	Combination therapy efficacy was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice associated with lower secretion of IFNγ by T cells in treated mice	Wang et al. (2025)
αCD40 IgG + systemic recombinant FLT3L protein	C57BL/6 Xcr1^DTRVenus	Orthotopic KP2 OVA–expressing models	Intratumoral expansion of total CD8⁺ T cells, IFNγ⁺ CD8⁺ T cells, and therapeutic benefit following treatment was diminished in the absence of cDC1s. Additionally, cDC1 numbers in TME following treatment may be sustained via IFNγ signaling	Hogg et al. (2025)
αCD40 IgG + systemic recombinant FLT3L protein	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	WT- and Mlh1-deficient KP NSCLC SC models	Therapeutic strategy to boost DC prevalence and activation via FLT3L and αCD40 IgG delivery exhibits diminished efficacy in cDC1-deficient mice, associated with diminished CD8⁺ T cell infiltration into tumor	López et al. (2024)
Bispecific antibodies targeting CD40 and DC/cDC1 cell surface markers	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6JXcr1-iDTR	MC38 SC, B16-OVA SC, and MCA-205 SC models	cDC1s are responsible for therapeutic efficacy of therapy but are not implicated in toxicityαCD40-targeted treatment does not induce tumor-specific CD8⁺ T cells, or therapeutic efficacy in Batf3^−/− mice	Salomon et al. (2022)
N/A	Xcr1^Cre/+Cd40^fl/fl (cDC1-specific CD40 deletion)	1956-mOVA fibrosarcoma SC model	Loss of CD40 signaling in cDC1 diminishes (1) endogenous antitumor CD8⁺ T cell responses due to lack of cDC1 licensing, (2) early CD4⁺ T cell activation	Ferris et al. (2020)
αCD40 IgG + αPD-1/CTLA4 IgG	B6.129S(C)-Batf3^tm1Kmm/J	PDA SC model	Therapeutic efficacy was ablated in Batf3^−/− mice	Morrison et al. (2020)
αCD40 IgG + gemcitabine/Nab-paclitaxel chemotherapy	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	PDA SC model	Therapeutic efficacy was diminished in Batf3^−/− mice	Byrne and Vonderheide (2016)
Oncolytic virus therapy
Oral reovirus therapy	B6.129S(C)-Batf3^tm1Kmm/J	CT26 SC models	Demonstrates the efficacy of oral delivery of oncolytic virus for, with effects dependent on cDC1s, type I IFN signaling and CD8⁺ T cells. Oral delivery was not therapeutically effective in cDC1-deficient mice	Lee et al. (2024b)
Intratumoral recombinant FLT3L and oncolytic NDV delivery	Batf3^−/− BALB/C	A20 SC models	Therapeutic synergy observed between intratumoral recombinant FLT3L delivery and intratumoral NDV delivery. Synergistic effects absent in cDC1-deficient miceLack of therapeutic efficacy in cDC1-deficient mice associated with lack of induction of tumor-specific T cells	Svensson-Arvelund et al. (2022)
Intratumoral delivery of heat-inactivated or live oncolytic vaccinia virus engineered to express GM-CSF	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	B16 ID models	cDC1s required for antitumor effects of both live and inactivated oncolytic virus delivery	Wang et al. (2021)
Intratumoral delivery of inactivated modified vaccine virus Ankara	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	B16 ID models	Therapeutic efficacy was dependent on cDC1s and additionally STING signaling in host. cDC1s required for induction of tumor-specific CD8⁺ T cell responses following therapy	Dai et al. (2017)
ACT
ACT cells expressing XCL1, FLT3L, or combination of both (ACT-FX)	Batf3^−/−C57BL/6N	B16-OVA and MC-38 OVA SC models	cDC1s required for efficacy of WT ACT or XCL1-expressing ACT. Additionally, ACT-FX were most effective at controlling tumor growth associated with enhanced DC:T cell interactions in the TME	Xiao et al. (2025)
ACT of OT-I cells	XCR1-DTR-Venus C57BL/6J	B16-OVA and MC-38 SC models	cDC1 depletion impaired the efficacy of ACT utilizing OT-I cells associated with decreased intratumoral infiltration, decreased stemness, and increased expression of exhaustion markers	Teijeira et al. (2022)
ACT of TYRP1-targeted CAR-T cells alone or in therapeutic combination with STING agonism	Batf3^−/−	B16 SC models	cDC1 depletion impaired the efficacy of CAR-T therapy ± STING agonism associated with a loss of epitope spreading and associated expansion of tumor-directed endogenous CD8⁺ T cell responses	Conde et al. (2021)
ACT of CAR-T cells expressing FLT3L in combination with poly I:C treatment	N/A	E0771-OVA-Her2 & MC38-Her2 SC models	CAR-T cells engineered to express FLT3L, given alongside poly I:C and α4-1BB IgG, promoted more effective tumor control, associated with expansion of cDC1, cDC2 populations in the TME and induction of epitope spreading in treated mice	Lai et al. (2020)
ACT of CD40L-overexpressing CAR-T cells	Batf3^−/− BALB/C	Systemic A20 lymphoma model	Therapeutic efficacy diminished in Batf3^−/− mice. Differentiation and expansion of cDC1s in the TME noted in response to ACT	Kuhn et al. (2020)
ACT of Pmel-1 CD8⁺ T cells alone and in combination with hgp100 peptide vaccination	Batf3^−/− C57BL/6J	B16 SC model	Expansion of transferred cells was absent in Batf3^−/− mice. Utilizing bone chimera models, authors confirm role for CD40 and CD70 signaling in host BATF3-reliant cells for ACT expansion and efficacy	Oba et al. (2020)
ACT of CD8⁺ T cells isolated from matched 2C donor mice and subsequently activated ex vivo	CD11c-DTR/Batf3^−/−	Autochthonous BP, BP-SIY, BPC-SIY melanoma models	CD103⁺ BATF3-dependent cells in the TME produce CXCL9/10 that promote intratumoral infiltration of transferred cells	Spranger et al. (2017)
ACT of OT-I cells	XCR1-DTR:Ccr7^−/− mixed BM chimeras	B78ChOVA SC model	CCR7-dependent migration of CD103⁺ DCs is required in the dLN to effectively prime previously transferred antitumor T cells	Roberts et al. (2016)
ACT of OT-I cells	FTY720-treated zDC-DTR mice	EG7.1 SC model	CD103⁺ DCs in tumor are required for antitumor effect of ACT	Broz et al. (2014)
cDC1-based vaccination
Intratumoral vaccination with peptide-loaded/activated CD34⁺ HSC-derived human cDC1s in combination with systemic anti–PD-1 IgG	N/A	SC humanized A375 melanoma model	Establishes the therapeutic feasibility and efficacy of a scalable, serum-free platform for generation of bona fide cDC1 from CD34⁺ progenitors. Intratumoral delivery of activated, antigen-loaded cDC1s combined with anti-PD-1 treatment reduced tumor growth in a humanized melanoma model	Balan et al. (2025)
Vaccination with splenic cDC1 or cDC2 loaded with tumor cell lysate via UV-irradiated tumor cells and stimulated with CpG ex vivo	N/A	SC B16-OVA and MC38	cDC1 vaccination more effective than cDC2 based in delaying tumor growth/prolonging survival and induction of Th1 and CD8⁺ T cell effector and memory responses	Heras-Murillo et al. (2025)
Intratumoral cDC1 vaccination in combination with αPD-1 IgG. XCR1⁺ cDC1s isolated from the spleen of mice harboring B16-FLT3L tumors were utilized. cDC1s were treated with poly I:C and tumor antigen peptides prior to delivery	N/A	Orthotopic MOC1esc1 (HNSCC model)	Intratumoral cDC1 vaccination restored αPD-1 responsiveness associated with expansion of tumor antigen–specific response and intratumoral infiltration	Saito et al. (2024)
Antigen agonistic approach involving intratumoral vaccination with cDC1, cDC2, or GM-CSF/IL-4–cultured DCs	N/A	1956 mOVA SC model	cDC1-based vaccination outperformed cDC2 or GM-CSF/IL-4 DCs in terms of tumor control and induction of tumor-specific CD8⁺ T cell responses. Vaccination was only effective via intratumoral and not intravenous route. cDC1-based vaccination was not reliant on the presence of host cDC1s	Ferris et al. (2022)
Intratumoral delivery of autologous CD141⁺ combined with αPD-1 IgG in humanized mouse model	N/A	Humanized mouse model—LM-MEL28 human melanoma cell line	Vaccination of humanized mouse autologous CD141⁺ DCs (previously activated with poly I:C) synergizes with αPD-1 therapy	Lee et al. (2021)
Vaccination with in vitro generated, tumor antigen–loaded, and poly I:C-activated CD103⁺ DCs alone and in combination with αPD-1 or αCTLA4 IgG	N/A	B16 and K7M3 (osteosarcoma) SC and metastatic models	CD103⁺ DC-based vaccination outperformed moDC-based vaccination in delaying tumor growth and inducing tumor-specific T cell responses. CD103⁺ cDC1 vaccination exhibited therapeutic synergy with ICB approaches	Zhou et al. (2020)
Vaccination with splenic cDC1 loaded with tumor cell lysate via UV-irradiated tumor cells and stimulated with poly I:C ex vivo	N/A	B16, B16-OVA, and MC38 SC models	First study to demonstrate the efficacy of cDC1-based cancer vaccination. Vaccination with dead tumor cell–loaded cDC1s promoted therapeutic efficacy alone and synergized with PD-1–directed ICB	Wculek et al. (2019)
Vaccination with DCs isolated from LLC-OVA tumors: cDC2 (MHC class II⁺ CD11c⁺ CD64⁻ CD24⁻ CD11b⁺ Ly6C^lo), cDC1 (MHC class II^+, CD11c⁺ CD64⁻ CD24⁺ CD11b^lo)	N/A	B16-OVA, LLC-OVA SC models	cDC1-based vaccination promoted strong induction of antitumor cytotoxic CD8⁺ T cellscDC1-based vaccination outperformed cDC2-based approaches in the B16-OVA tumor modelcDC2-based vaccination outperformed cDC1-based approaches in the LLC-OVA tumor model, with authors hypothesizing role of MDSCs and TAMs in TME mediating lack of cDC1 efficacy	Laoui et al. (2016)

ACT, adoptive cell therapy; TME, tumor microenvironment; NSCLC, non–small-cell lung cancer; BM, bone marrow; SC, subcutaneous; PDA, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma; NDV, Newcastle disease virus.

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