Table 1.

Controlled, randomized clinical trials or high-powered retrospective trials with high-quality analysis assessing the impact of a retinoid compared to a placebo or other appropriate control

Intent to treatDrugMechanismDesignPopulationCancer effectsCardiometabolic effectsTrial IDSample sizeCoMedNote
Prevention trials 
 β-Carotene Vitamin A RCT High-risk male smokers 18% increase lung cancer 11% increase heart disease ATBC 29,133 Tocopherol  
 β-Carotene/retinyl palmitate Vitamin A RCT High-risk smokers/asbestos 28% increase lung cancer, 52% prostate cancer 26% increase cardiovascular mortality CARET 18,314 None  
 β-Carotene/retinol Vitamin A Retrospective Healthy individuals (ages 50–76) 53% increase lung cancer Not assessed VITAL 77,126 Lutein  
 Fenretinide RAR agonist RCT Healthy women No overall effect Not assessed PMID: 10547391 2,972 None a 
 Fenretinide RAR agonist RCT High-grade cervical squamous lesions 40% decrease in response rate Not assessed PMID: 11705848 39 None  
Intervention trials 
Melanoma Retinol Vitamin A RCT High-risk resected melanoma No effect Not assessed PMID: 7931474 248 None b 
HNSCC Retinyl palmitate Vitamin A RCT HNSCC Trend to twofold increase in recurrence Not assessed PMID: 9039219 106 None  
HNSCC Retinyl palmitate Vitamin A RCT Early HNSCC and lung cancer No effect Low-requency hypercholesterolemia and liver enzyme elevation EUROSCAN 2,592 N-acetylcysteine c 
Lung cancer Retinyl palmitate Vitamin A RCT Stage 1 NSCLC Trend to improved disease-free survival (P = 0.054) Hyperlipidemia and GGT elevation PMID: 8391063 307 None  
Lung cancer Tamibarotene RAR agonist RCT Stage IIIB/IV NSCLC PFS HR 1.54 (P = 0.088). OS HR 1.48 (P = 0.24) Grade 3/4 hypertriglyceridemia NCT01337154 137 Paclitaxel/carboplatin d 
Lung cancer atRA RAR agonist RCT Advanced SCLC No effect No effect NCT00617409 69 Chemo + DC vaccine  
Liver cancer Amsilarotene RARα agonist RCT Advanced HCC No effect Deep vein thrombosis NCT00687596 52 None  
Cervical cancer Alitretinoin RAR/RXR agonist RCT CIN 2/3 cervical dysplasia No effect Hyperlipidemia and decreased HDL PMID: 12582020 114 None  
Lung cancer Bexarotene RXR agonist RCT Advanced NSCLC Trend to reduced OS/PFS Hyperlipidemia and hypothyroidism Spirit I 623 Cisplatin/vinorelbine  
Lung cancer Bexarotene RXR agonist RCT Advanced NSCLC Trend to reduced OS/PFS (P = 0.06) Hyperlipidemia Spirit II 612 Carboplatin/paclitaxel  
Lung cancer Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Stage 1 NSCLC 56% increased death in smokers (P = 0.01) No significant differences PMID: 11309437 1,166 None  
HNSCC Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Stage 1/2 HNSCC No effect None PMID: 16595780 1,190   
Renal cancer Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Metastatic RCC 31% increased survival None EORTC 30951 320 Interferon α  
Neuroblastoma Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Pediatric high-risk neuroblastoma Trend to improved survival (P = 0.054) None CCG-3891 379   
Neuroblastoma Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Pediatric stage 3/4 neuroblastoma No effect None PMID: 11027423 175   
Glioblastoma Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid CT Glioblastoma Trend to worse outcomes None NCT00112502 178 TMZ, thalidomide, celecoxib  
Lung cancer Disulfiram ALDH1a1/2 inhibitor RCT Stage 4 NSCLC Improved PFS and OS Not assessed PMID: 25777347 40 Cisplatin/vinorelbine  
Topical gel trials 
AIDS Kaposi sarcoma Alitretinoin (topical) RAR agonist Within patient trial Cutaneous Kaposi sarcoma 16% increased response rate None PMID: 11115156 115   
CTCL Bexarotene (topical) RXR agonist Within patient trial Early CTCL 46% response rate None PMID: 14576658 50   
Keratinocyte carcinoma Tretinoin (topical) RAR agonist RCT Men with history of KC No overall effect Fourfold increase in death due to vascular disease VATTC 1,131 None e 
Noncancer trials 
Immune thrombocytopenia atRA RAR agonist RCT Steroid-resistant thrombocytopenia 47% improved response None PMID: 28917657 96 Danazol  
Intent to treatDrugMechanismDesignPopulationCancer effectsCardiometabolic effectsTrial IDSample sizeCoMedNote
Prevention trials 
 β-Carotene Vitamin A RCT High-risk male smokers 18% increase lung cancer 11% increase heart disease ATBC 29,133 Tocopherol  
 β-Carotene/retinyl palmitate Vitamin A RCT High-risk smokers/asbestos 28% increase lung cancer, 52% prostate cancer 26% increase cardiovascular mortality CARET 18,314 None  
 β-Carotene/retinol Vitamin A Retrospective Healthy individuals (ages 50–76) 53% increase lung cancer Not assessed VITAL 77,126 Lutein  
 Fenretinide RAR agonist RCT Healthy women No overall effect Not assessed PMID: 10547391 2,972 None a 
 Fenretinide RAR agonist RCT High-grade cervical squamous lesions 40% decrease in response rate Not assessed PMID: 11705848 39 None  
Intervention trials 
Melanoma Retinol Vitamin A RCT High-risk resected melanoma No effect Not assessed PMID: 7931474 248 None b 
HNSCC Retinyl palmitate Vitamin A RCT HNSCC Trend to twofold increase in recurrence Not assessed PMID: 9039219 106 None  
HNSCC Retinyl palmitate Vitamin A RCT Early HNSCC and lung cancer No effect Low-requency hypercholesterolemia and liver enzyme elevation EUROSCAN 2,592 N-acetylcysteine c 
Lung cancer Retinyl palmitate Vitamin A RCT Stage 1 NSCLC Trend to improved disease-free survival (P = 0.054) Hyperlipidemia and GGT elevation PMID: 8391063 307 None  
Lung cancer Tamibarotene RAR agonist RCT Stage IIIB/IV NSCLC PFS HR 1.54 (P = 0.088). OS HR 1.48 (P = 0.24) Grade 3/4 hypertriglyceridemia NCT01337154 137 Paclitaxel/carboplatin d 
Lung cancer atRA RAR agonist RCT Advanced SCLC No effect No effect NCT00617409 69 Chemo + DC vaccine  
Liver cancer Amsilarotene RARα agonist RCT Advanced HCC No effect Deep vein thrombosis NCT00687596 52 None  
Cervical cancer Alitretinoin RAR/RXR agonist RCT CIN 2/3 cervical dysplasia No effect Hyperlipidemia and decreased HDL PMID: 12582020 114 None  
Lung cancer Bexarotene RXR agonist RCT Advanced NSCLC Trend to reduced OS/PFS Hyperlipidemia and hypothyroidism Spirit I 623 Cisplatin/vinorelbine  
Lung cancer Bexarotene RXR agonist RCT Advanced NSCLC Trend to reduced OS/PFS (P = 0.06) Hyperlipidemia Spirit II 612 Carboplatin/paclitaxel  
Lung cancer Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Stage 1 NSCLC 56% increased death in smokers (P = 0.01) No significant differences PMID: 11309437 1,166 None  
HNSCC Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Stage 1/2 HNSCC No effect None PMID: 16595780 1,190   
Renal cancer Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Metastatic RCC 31% increased survival None EORTC 30951 320 Interferon α  
Neuroblastoma Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Pediatric high-risk neuroblastoma Trend to improved survival (P = 0.054) None CCG-3891 379   
Neuroblastoma Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid RCT Pediatric stage 3/4 neuroblastoma No effect None PMID: 11027423 175   
Glioblastoma Isotretinoin Non-nuclear retinoid CT Glioblastoma Trend to worse outcomes None NCT00112502 178 TMZ, thalidomide, celecoxib  
Lung cancer Disulfiram ALDH1a1/2 inhibitor RCT Stage 4 NSCLC Improved PFS and OS Not assessed PMID: 25777347 40 Cisplatin/vinorelbine  
Topical gel trials 
AIDS Kaposi sarcoma Alitretinoin (topical) RAR agonist Within patient trial Cutaneous Kaposi sarcoma 16% increased response rate None PMID: 11115156 115   
CTCL Bexarotene (topical) RXR agonist Within patient trial Early CTCL 46% response rate None PMID: 14576658 50   
Keratinocyte carcinoma Tretinoin (topical) RAR agonist RCT Men with history of KC No overall effect Fourfold increase in death due to vascular disease VATTC 1,131 None e 
Noncancer trials 
Immune thrombocytopenia atRA RAR agonist RCT Steroid-resistant thrombocytopenia 47% improved response None PMID: 28917657 96 Danazol  

Key trial attributes along with cancer and cardiometabolic effects are listed. Bold indicates significant effects. Orange shading indicates adverse effect. Green shading indicates beneficial effect. HNSCC, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma; RCT, randomized controlled trial; CT, clinical trial; KC, keratinocyte carcinoma; NSCLC, non-small cell lung cancer; RCC, renal cell carcinoma; CIN, cervical intraepithelial neoplasia; HCC, hepatocellular carcinoma; SCLC, small cell lung cancer; PFS, progression-free survival; HR, hazard ratio; OS, overall survival; GGT, gamma-glutamyl transferase; VITAL, VITamin D and OmegA-3 TriaL; EUROSCAN, European Study on Chemoprevention with Antioxidants; EORTC, European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer; CoMed, combination medication; TMZ, temozolomide.

a

Beneficial effect seen in pre-menopausal women. Worse effect in post-menopausal women.

b

12% grade 3/4 toxicities, lipids not measured.

c

Possible increase in second primary malignancy.

d

Increased grade 3/4 anemia, hypertrigyceridemia, and febrile neutropenia.

e

Significantly increased lung cancer and pulmonary disease in treated patients.

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