Different migration modes and selected determinants
| Migration mode | Cell types | ECM determinants | Cell determinants | Related transitions | References |
| Single | |||||
| Amoeboid, blebby | Zebrafish macrophage, some stem cells | Poorly adhesive; soft embryonic connective tissue; obligate 3D | Asymmetric bleb-rich cortical actomyosin cytoskeleton, low polarity; low migration speed (below 1 µm/min) | Blebby-to-pseudopodal transitions | Blaser et al., 2006; Yoshida and Soldati, 2006 |
| Amoeboid, pseudopodal | Leukocytes, including dendritic cells; Dictyostelium discoideum | Loose primordial or mature connective tissue; 2D or 3D | Poorly adhesive, no formation of focal adhesions; Rac-driven anterior protrusion with counterbalance by Rho/ROCK in other cell parts; relatively rapid migration (10 µm/min) | Amoeboid-to-mesenchymal transition | Yoshida and Soldati, 2006; Lämmermann et al., 2008 |
| Mesenchymal | Fibroblasts, neural crest cells, sarcoma cells, dedifferentiated cancer cells of different origin | Loose or dense primordial or mature connective tissue; usually associated with fibrin or collagen remodeling | Moderately to highly adhesive; focal interactions with ECM; high contractility; high anterior Rac activity counterbalanced by Rho in other cell parts; slow migration (0.1–1 µm/min) | Mesenchymal-to-amoeboid transition; mesenchymal-to-epithelial/collective transition | Wolf et al., 2003a, 2007; Grinnell, 2008; Paňková et al., 2009; Thiery, 2002 |
| Multicellular | |||||
| Chain migration, cell streaming | Neural crest cells, fibroblasts | Joint ECM tracks? | Individual cells with temporary tiplike cell-cell contacts | Migration arrest and integration into terminal tissue | Davis and Trinkaus, 1981; Kulesa and Fraser, 2000 |
| Collective | Dictyostelium at slug stage, lateral line (zebrafish), border cells (Drosophila egg chamber), sprouting vessels, many epithelial and other cancer types | Any 2D and 3D ECM environment, resulting in cohesive sheets or 3D strands, tubes, clusters or amorphous masses | Intact and stable cell–cell adhesions; coordination of multicellular leading edge protrusion and rear retraction; cell–cell communication during migration | Collective-to-single cell transitions (epithelial/collective-to-mesenchymal; collective-to-amoeboid) | Hegerfeldt et al., 2002; Thiery, 2002; Alexander et al., 2008; Friedl and Gilmour, 2009 |
| Keratocyte-like | Keratinocytes | Obligate 2D surface or tissue | Persistent gliding-type migration of spread-out cells with broad continuous leading lamella cadherin-based cell–cell junctions | Not known | Keren et al., 2008 |
| Migration mode | Cell types | ECM determinants | Cell determinants | Related transitions | References |
| Single | |||||
| Amoeboid, blebby | Zebrafish macrophage, some stem cells | Poorly adhesive; soft embryonic connective tissue; obligate 3D | Asymmetric bleb-rich cortical actomyosin cytoskeleton, low polarity; low migration speed (below 1 µm/min) | Blebby-to-pseudopodal transitions | Blaser et al., 2006; Yoshida and Soldati, 2006 |
| Amoeboid, pseudopodal | Leukocytes, including dendritic cells; Dictyostelium discoideum | Loose primordial or mature connective tissue; 2D or 3D | Poorly adhesive, no formation of focal adhesions; Rac-driven anterior protrusion with counterbalance by Rho/ROCK in other cell parts; relatively rapid migration (10 µm/min) | Amoeboid-to-mesenchymal transition | Yoshida and Soldati, 2006; Lämmermann et al., 2008 |
| Mesenchymal | Fibroblasts, neural crest cells, sarcoma cells, dedifferentiated cancer cells of different origin | Loose or dense primordial or mature connective tissue; usually associated with fibrin or collagen remodeling | Moderately to highly adhesive; focal interactions with ECM; high contractility; high anterior Rac activity counterbalanced by Rho in other cell parts; slow migration (0.1–1 µm/min) | Mesenchymal-to-amoeboid transition; mesenchymal-to-epithelial/collective transition | Wolf et al., 2003a, 2007; Grinnell, 2008; Paňková et al., 2009; Thiery, 2002 |
| Multicellular | |||||
| Chain migration, cell streaming | Neural crest cells, fibroblasts | Joint ECM tracks? | Individual cells with temporary tiplike cell-cell contacts | Migration arrest and integration into terminal tissue | Davis and Trinkaus, 1981; Kulesa and Fraser, 2000 |
| Collective | Dictyostelium at slug stage, lateral line (zebrafish), border cells (Drosophila egg chamber), sprouting vessels, many epithelial and other cancer types | Any 2D and 3D ECM environment, resulting in cohesive sheets or 3D strands, tubes, clusters or amorphous masses | Intact and stable cell–cell adhesions; coordination of multicellular leading edge protrusion and rear retraction; cell–cell communication during migration | Collective-to-single cell transitions (epithelial/collective-to-mesenchymal; collective-to-amoeboid) | Hegerfeldt et al., 2002; Thiery, 2002; Alexander et al., 2008; Friedl and Gilmour, 2009 |
| Keratocyte-like | Keratinocytes | Obligate 2D surface or tissue | Persistent gliding-type migration of spread-out cells with broad continuous leading lamella cadherin-based cell–cell junctions | Not known | Keren et al., 2008 |